Modern medical practitioners hold diverse views on the aforementioned diseases, with numerous theories and treatment methods. Below are a few examples.

Composed of Magnolia bark, malt, Shenqu, areca nut, and other ingredients, it is primarily indicated for "spleen cold, indigestion, fatigue, bloating, fullness, and restlessness." The Shenling Baizhu San formula from the "Taiping Huimin Heji Ju Fang" is suitable and effective for chronic gastritis of the spleen-stomach deficiency-cold type as well as simple diarrhea. According to "Lan Shi Mi Cang · Volume 2," to tonify the qi of the spleen and stomach, one often uses ginseng, astragalus, and honey-fried licorice; to warm the middle jiao, Wu Zhu Yu, white cardamom, and Alpinia oxyphylla are commonly employed; to regulate qi, one uses magnolia bark, green tangerine peel, dried tangerine peel, bupleurum, and magnolia bark; to harmonize the stomach, malt, Shenqu, Pinellia ternata, and dried tangerine peel are used; and to harmonize blood, one uses angelica, peach kernel, and safflower. "The Medical Essentials · Volume 8" points out that epigastric pain may present with "either fullness, or distension, or vomiting, or inability to eat, or acid regurgitation, or difficulty in defecation, or diarrhea, or facial edema and yellowing." These symptoms suggest most of the manifestations that chronic gastritis or peptic ulcer disease might exhibit, while also reflecting Li's extensive clinical experience. "The Complete Works of Jingyue · Heart and Abdominal Pain" discusses the causes of stomach pain: "The most common causes are food stagnation, cold stagnation, and qi stagnation. Other causes include parasites, fire, phlegm, and blood stasis, all of which can lead to pain. Generally, those with sudden onset tend to have the first three conditions, whereas those with gradual onset often have the latter four." It further states, "Cold-related cases account for eight or nine out of ten, while heat-related cases only make up one or two." "The Clinical Guide to Medical Cases" says, "Food intake is governed by the stomach, while digestion and transformation are governed by the spleen. The spleen thrives when it rises, and the stomach thrives when it descends. The Taiyin damp earth requires yang to function, while the Yangming yang earth needs yin to remain stable. The spleen prefers dryness, whereas the stomach prefers moisture." This demonstrates Ye's understanding of the physiological functions of the spleen and stomach. His assertion that "the stomach prefers moisture and dislikes dryness" was later adopted by subsequent scholars, adding methods of nourishing stomach yin and descending stomach qi to the treatment principles of Li Dongyuan and others who emphasized qi-tonifying and yang-raising therapies, thus making the treatment of spleen-stomach diseases more comprehensive. "In the 'Gu's Medical Mirror · Stomach Pain,' it is advocated that for stomach pain caused by liver-spleen disharmony, one should use Peony-Licorice Decoction as the base, supplemented with Si Mo Yin for qi stagnation, Shi Xiao San for blood stasis, and Baohe Wan for food stagnation." "The Six Books on Medical Briefings and Miscellaneous Pain Treatment" proposes Qingzhong Tang for treating stomach heat pain. For patients with rapid pulse, one should use 3 grams of Coptis, 4.5 grams of Pinellia, 6 grams of Gardenia, 3 grams of Licorice, 4.5 grams of Poria, 4.5 grams of Dried Tangerine Peel, and 1.5 grams of Licorice, along with ginger at 6 grams. For blood-stasis-related stomach pain with a sluggish pulse, one should use Yanhusuo at 45 grams, Wulingzhi at 60 grams, Myrrh at 60 grams, and Cardamom seeds at 30 grams, ground into a powder and taken with hot wine at 9 grams each time. These treatment methods and prescriptions are concise, clear, and insightful. "The Source and Flow of Miscellaneous Diseases · Volume 5 · Fullness and Distension" states, "Fullness and distension are spleen disorders, fundamentally caused by spleen qi deficiency and qi stagnation preventing proper circulation." This clearly explains the pathogenesis of the spleen-stagnation type of this condition, which is very convincing. Modern medical practitioners hold diverse views on the aforementioned diseases, with numerous theories and treatment methods. Below are a few examples. The Spleen-Stomach Disease Branch of the Chinese Association of Traditional Chinese Medicine has explicitly stated in the "Consensus Opinion on TCM Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Superficial Gastritis" that the TCM syndromes of chronic gastritis are divided into spleen-stomach qi deficiency syndrome, liver-stomach disharmony syndrome, spleen-stomach deficiency-cold syndrome, stomach-yin deficiency syndrome, and spleen-stomach damp-heat syndrome. Li Xinghua and others selected 110 patients with chronic superficial gastritis of the spleen-stomach damp-heat type, randomly dividing them into an observation group and a control group, each with 55 cases. The observation group was treated with Lianpu Drink combined with Banxia Xiexin Tang with modifications (ginger-magnolia bark, ginger-coptis, Acorus tatarinowii, ginger-pinellia, stir-fried gardenia, reed root, scutellaria, dried ginger, jujube, licorice, dried tangerine peel, patchouli, artemisia, turmeric, and yanhusuo), while the control group was given Shiwishu capsules orally. After treatment, endoscopic examination showed that the gastric mucosa improvement rate in the observation group reached 96.4%, significantly better than the control group (81.8%), and their serum superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels increased markedly (all P < 0.01). Chen Ping and others admitted 98 patients with chronic superficial gastritis of the stomach-yin deficiency syndrome, treating them with Yigui Tang with modifications (beach sand ginseng, ophiopogon, polygonatum, rehmannia, white peony, black plum, white atractylodes, dried tangerine peel, licorice). After six weeks of treatment, the total effective rate reached 93.75%, achieving satisfactory clinical results. Zhao Zaijun formulated his own Weian Formula (prepared magnolia bark, coptis, scutellaria, salvia, acorus, amomum, prepared pinellia, malt, roasted gardenia, reed root) to treat 50 patients with chronic superficial gastritis. The control group consisted of 53 patients who were first treated with amoxicillin capsules, clarithromycin dispersible tablets, and omeprazole enteric-coated tablets orally for one week, followed by continued use of omeprazole enteric-coated tablets for two months. As a result, the total effective rate in the treatment group (94.3%) was significantly higher than that of the control group (82.0%), suggesting that the mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine treatment may be related to its free-radical scavenging and antioxidant effects. Yang Lirong, drawing on many years of clinical experience, formulated Shugan Hewei Tang (stir-fried malt, white peony, poria, white atractylodes, yanhusuo, dandelion, bupleurum, codonopsis, walnuts, angelica, citron, shellfish, pinellia, coptis, raw licorice, and sanqi powder) in combination with the Western medicine rabeprazole sodium enteric-coated tablets to treat 68 patients with chronic non-atrophic gastritis. After two weeks of treatment, the total effective rate reached 97.7%, significantly higher than the 58 patients receiving only Western medicine treatment (63.8%). Qu Yujiang and others used traditional Chinese medicine–specific abdominal massage techniques to treat 30 patients with chronic superficial gastritis, employing abdominal pressing, kneading, and moving techniques to strengthen the spleen and stomach, as well as pushing the liver meridian and rubbing both flanks to relieve liver qi stagnation. Through abdominal massage, shaking, and rubbing the eight-jiao acupoints to warm the yang and nourish the stomach, the overall effective rate reached 90.0%. They believe this treatment method is safe, reliable, effective, and easy to operate, making it worthy of clinical promotion. Du Ketao and others used acupuncture combined with moxibustion (procedure: selecting Qihai, Guanyuan, bilateral Zusanli, bilateral Sanyinjiao, and bilateral Tianshu acupoints, performing small-amplitude twisting without lifting and inserting, retaining the needles for 30 minutes, then applying warm moxibustion to Zhongwan acupoint for 30 minutes) to treat 56 patients with chronic superficial gastritis of the spleen-stomach deficiency-cold type, while the control group consisted of 56 patients receiving only ranitidine orally. The results showed that the treatment group achieved a 100% total effective rate, significantly better than the control group (82.1%). Anatomical, physiological, and pathological aspects: The liver is the largest gland in the human body and also the largest solid organ, mainly located in the right hypochondriac region and upper abdomen. The average length and width of the Chinese liver are 25 cm × 15 cm. The liver has a rich blood supply, is brownish-red in color, and has a soft yet brittle texture. The right end of the liver is rounded and thick, while the left end is narrow and wedge-shaped, with two surfaces—front and back—and four edges—top, bottom, left, and right. The surface of the liver is covered by a grayish-white hepatic capsule. The liver’s blood supply comes from the portal vein and the hepatic artery. The terminal branches of the portal vein expand into venous sinuses within the liver, serving as the channels for blood circulation inside the hepatic lobules. The hepatic artery carries arterial blood from the heart, primarily supplying oxygen, while the portal vein collects venous blood from the digestive tract, mainly providing nutrients. Viral hepatitis is a common and frequently occurring disease that seriously harms people’s physical and mental health. To date, six types of viruses have been found to cause hepatitis, giving rise to six different forms of hepatitis: type A, type B, type C, type D, type E, and type G. Pathologically, acute hepatitis is mainly characterized by inflammation, degeneration, and necrosis, with little fibrosis; chronic hepatitis, in addition to inflammation and necrosis, exhibits varying degrees of fibrosis and may even progress to cirrhosis. II. Diagnosis and Treatment (---) Clinical Diagnosis Viral hepatitis is a highly prevalent disease caused by multiple pathogens. Hepatitis A and hepatitis E, which are transmitted through fecal-oral routes, are now relatively rare, with occasional localized outbreaks. Currently, hepatitis B has the greatest impact on public health, followed by hepatitis C. Therefore, we will focus on the diagnostic criteria for these two types of hepatitis:

1. Classification and diagnosis of hepatitis B (HBV) (1) Chronic hepatitis B It is divided into HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B and HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B. The former has positive serum HBSAg, HBV-DNA, and HBeAg, with negative anti-HBe; the latter has positive serum HBSAg and HBV-DNA, with persistently negative HBeAg, and positive or negative anti-HBe. Both groups show persistent or recurrent elevation of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), or histological examination reveals hepatitis lesions in the liver tissue. (2) Hepatitis B cirrhosis Hepatitis B cirrhosis is a consequence of chronic hepatitis B progression. Depending on the condition, it can be further classified into compensated cirrhosis and decompensated cirrhosis. The former may present with mild fatigue, decreased appetite, or abdominal distension, with abnormal ALT and AST levels, but no obvious signs of liver function decompensation. The latter often experiences severe complications such as rupture and bleeding of esophageal and gastric fundal varices, hepatic encephalopathy, and ascites. There are usually obvious signs of liver function decompensation, such as serum albumin < 35 g/L, bilirubin > 35 μmol/L, varying degrees of elevated ALT and AST, and prothrombin activity (PTA) < 60%. (3) Carriers They are divided into chronic HBV carriers and inactive HBSAg carriers. In the latter, neither HBeAg nor HBV-DNA can be detected in the serum (using PCR method). (4) Latent chronic hepatitis B Serum HBSAg is negative, but HBV-DNA is positive in the serum and/or liver tissue, accompanied by clinical manifestations of chronic hepatitis B.
2. Diagnosis of hepatitis C (HCV) Past history of blood transfusion, use of blood products, or clear exposure to HCV, intravenous drug use, tattooing, etc. Clinical manifestations include general fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, and pain in the right hypochondriac region, with occasional low-grade fever, mild hepatomegaly, and some patients may develop splenomegaly, while a few may experience jaundice. However, most patients have no obvious symptoms and present as latent infections, often discovered during routine health checkups due to elevated ALT. It can be divided into acute and chronic types. (1) Acute hepatitis C ① Epidemiological history: History of blood transfusion, use of blood products, or clear exposure to HCV. The incubation period for acute hepatitis C after blood transfusion is 2–16 weeks (average 7 weeks), while the incubation period for sporadic acute hepatitis C remains to be studied. ② Clinical manifestations: General fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, and pain in the right hypochondriac region, with occasional low-grade fever, mild hepatomegaly, and some patients may develop splenomegaly, while a few may experience jaundice. Some patients have no obvious symptoms and present as latent infections. ③ Laboratory tests: ALT is mostly mildly to moderately elevated, anti-HCV is positive, and HCV-RNA ≥ 1 × 10^3 copies/mL. HCV-RNA often turns negative before ALT returns to normal, but there are also cases where ALT returns to normal while HCV-RNA remains positive. If any of the above three items are present, or if item ② + item ③ are present, it can be diagnosed as acute hepatitis C. (2) Chronic hepatitis C ① Diagnostic basis: HCV infection lasting more than 6 months, or onset date unknown with no prior history of hepatitis, but liver tissue pathology confirms chronic hepatitis, or based on a comprehensive analysis of symptoms, signs, laboratory tests, and imaging findings, it can also be diagnosed. ② Severity assessment: The severity assessment can refer to the diagnostic standards for grading and staging liver inflammation and fibrosis in the "Viral Hepatitis Prevention and Control Plan" jointly revised by the Infectious Diseases and Parasitic Diseases Branch of the Chinese Medical Association and the Liver Disease Branch. HCV alone rarely causes severe hepatitis; however, when HCV overlaps with HIV, HBV, or other viral infections, or when excessive alcohol consumption or hepatotoxic drugs are used, it can develop into severe hepatitis. The clinical manifestations of severe hepatitis caused by HCV are basically the same as those caused by other hepatotropic viruses, and can manifest as acute, subacute, or chronic courses. ③ Extrahepatic manifestations of chronic hepatitis C: Extrahepatic clinical manifestations or syndromes may be caused by abnormal immune responses in the body, including rheumatoid arthritis, dry conjunctivitis and keratitis, lichen planus, glomerulonephritis, mixed cryoglobulinemia, B-cell lymphoma, and late-onset cutaneous porphyria, among others. ④ Laboratory tests: ALT is mostly mildly to moderately elevated, anti-HCV is positive, and HCV-RNA ≥ 1 × 10^3 copies/mL. (2) Western medical treatment
3. Treatment of chronic hepatitis B The overall goal of treating chronic hepatitis B is to suppress or eliminate HBV for as long as possible, reduce hepatocellular inflammation and necrosis as well as liver fibrosis, slow down and prevent disease progression, decrease and prevent liver decompensation, cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and their complications, thereby improving quality of life and prolonging survival. Treatment for chronic hepatitis B mainly includes antiviral therapy, immunomodulation, anti-inflammatory liver protection, anti-fibrosis, and symptomatic treatment, among which antiviral therapy is key. As long as there are indications and conditions permit, standardized antiviral treatment should be administered. (1) Indications for antiviral therapy ① HBV-DNA ≥ 10^5 copies/mL (for HBeAg-negative individuals, it is ≥ 4 copies/mL). ② ALT ≥ 2 times the upper limit of normal; if interferon is used, ALT should be ≤ 10 times the upper limit of normal, and total bilirubin level should be < 2 times the upper limit of normal. ③ If ALT is < 2 times the upper limit of normal, but liver histology shows Knodell HAI ≥ 4, or inflammation and necrosis ≥ G2. Patients who meet criteria ① and either ② or ③ should receive antiviral treatment; for those who do not meet the above treatment standards, their condition should be monitored closely. If HBV-DNA remains positive and ALT is abnormal, antiviral treatment should also be considered. (2) Antiviral drugs ① Interferon (IFN). The sustained response rate for ordinary interferon treatment is only about 10%, with a maximum of 47%. Currently, polyethylene glycol interferon (PEG-IFN) is more commonly used. ② Nucleoside (acid) analogs. In China, nucleoside (acid) analogs currently used to treat hepatitis B include lamivudine, adefovir dipivoxil, entecavir, telbivudine, and others. These drugs have the advantage of significantly inhibiting HBV, but require long-term medication. Patients with cirrhosis or liver function decompensation should especially avoid stopping medication abruptly. Long-term use can lead to drug-resistant virus strains, and some may relapse after discontinuation—these are the drawbacks of nucleoside (acid) analogs. ③ Immunomodulators. Immunomodulatory treatment is one of the important means of treating chronic hepatitis B, but currently there is still a lack of hepatitis B-specific immunotherapy methods. Thymosin α1 can enhance non-specific immune function, has few adverse reactions, and is safe to use. For patients who have antiviral indications but cannot tolerate or are unwilling to accept interferon and nucleoside (acid) analog treatments, thymosin α1 at 11.6 mg can be used twice a week via subcutaneous injection for a course of 6 months. ④ Anti-inflammatory liver protection. Hepatocellular inflammation and necrosis, along with the resulting liver fibrosis, are the main pathological basis for disease progression. Therefore, if liver tissue inflammation can be effectively suppressed, it may reduce hepatocellular damage and slow down the development of liver fibrosis. Glycyrrhizic acid preparations, silymarin-based preparations, and other formulations have relatively clear active ingredients, with varying degrees of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and protective effects on hepatocyte membranes and organelles. Clinical application can improve liver biochemical indicators. Biphenyl diester and bicyclol can also lower serum aminotransferase levels, especially ALT. Anti-inflammatory liver protection is only part of comprehensive treatment and cannot replace antiviral therapy. Anti-fibrosis. Studies have shown that after antiviral treatment with interferon (IFN)-like agents, liver tissue pathology shows that fibrosis and even cirrhosis have been alleviated. Therefore, antiviral treatment is the foundation of anti-fibrosis treatment.
4. Treatment of hepatitis C (1) The purpose of antiviral treatment for hepatitis C is to clear or continuously suppress HCV in the body, thereby improving or reducing liver damage, preventing progression to cirrhosis, liver failure, or HCC, and enhancing patients’ quality of life. (2) The effective antiviral drug for hepatitis C is interferon u (IFN-u), which is effective against HCV. This includes ordinary IFN, compound IFN, and polyethylene glycol (PEG) modified interferon a (PEG-IFN U). PEG-IFN combined with ribavirin is currently the most effective antiviral treatment regimen, followed by ordinary IFN or compound IFN combined with ribavirin, both of which are superior to using IFN alone. III. Professor Pei Zhengxue’s Thinking Method Professor Pei Zhengxue believes that viral hepatitis, whether type B or type C, falls under the categories of “胁痛,” “积聚,” “胃痛,” “黄疸,” and “瘟疫” in traditional Chinese medicine, so it can be discussed together in terms of TCM differential diagnosis and treatment. The "Discussions on the Origins and Symptoms of Various Diseases" states, "When people are infected with perverse qi and become ill, the disease qi easily spreads and infects others, even leading to the extinction of entire families." Mixed qi belongs to damp-heat, epidemic toxins, and other harmful influences.